Carlyle's Vocabulary

Word	Definition
culminant	Of a heavenly body: That has reached its greatest altitude, that is on the meridian; hence fig. that is at its greatest height.
whinstone	A name for various very hard dark-coloured rocks or stones, as greenstone, basalt, chert, or quartzose sandstone.
shaveling	A contemptuous epithet for a tonsured ecclesiastic. (Very common in 16th and 17th c.)
fingent	Given to fashioning or moulding.
losel	A worthless person; a profligate, rake, scoundrel; in weaker sense, a ragamuffin, ne'er-do-well.
edacity	The quality of being edacious; capacity for eating; good appetite. or Corrosive quality, destructive power. Obs.
gulosity	Gluttony, greediness, voracity.
eleutheromaniac	one possessed by a mad zeal for freedom
fremescence	An incipient roaring.
fremescent	Murmuring, growing noisy.
grunsel	groundsel OR ground-sill
tripudiation	the action of dancing or leaping, esp. in token of joy or excitement; exultation.
weasand	The œsophagus or gullet.
obtest	To call upon in the name of something sacred; to charge solemnly, adjure; to beg earnestly, beseech, entreat, or implore (a person). Freq. with infinitive or that-clause as complement.
spontoon	A species of half-pike or halberd carried by infantry officers in the 18th century (from about 1740).
furibund	Furious, raging, mad.
scorine	????
bando	A public proclamation. Obs.
divulsive	Tending to tear apart or asunder.
handsel	To give (a person) a gift at the beginning of the year or day, on a birthday, etc., as a token of good luck. Also more generally: to give a gift on any occasion. Formerly also in ironic use: †to present or greet with something unwelcome (obs.).
scission	Division of a previously united body of people into mutually opposing parties; a split, a schism.
passe-partout	Originally: †a person who may go anywhere (obs.). Subsequently: a thing giving a person the right or opportunity to go anywhere; spec. a key that opens any or many doors, a master key; (occas.) a passport. Freq. in extended use and fig.
footling	Trivial, pointless; (of a person) that footles or trifles.
adust	Originally: affected with, or having a temperament determined by, adust humours (see sense 1a). In later use: having a melancholy character or appearance; gloomy; sallow. Obs. or That is in a dusty condition; covered in dust. or To burn, to scorch; to desiccate by exposing to strong heat. Also fig.
demit	trans. To send, put, or let down; to cause to descend; to lower.
phasis	esp. any particular aspect of a thing of varying appearances. Obs.
bob-miner	????
mittimus	Law. A warrant issued by a justice of the peace, etc., committing a person to custody. Now hist. exc. in U.S. or trans. To commit to prison by a warrant. Obs. rare.
apophthegm	A terse, pointed saying, embodying an important truth in few words; a pithy or sententious maxim.
brayed ware	a confusion for braided ware = damaged or faded goods;
epicedium	A funeral ode; a lament over a dead person. Also in figurative contexts.
ferula	The giant fennel or From the use of the fennel-stalk in Roman times: A cane, rod, or other instrument of punishment, esp. a flat piece of wood (see ferule n. 2); fig. school discipline.
abutment	The point at which something abuts upon something else; a point of junction or meeting; a boundary. Also: a property or piece of land that abuts upon another; a description or record of how one property abuts upon another.
escarpment	Geol. ‘The abrupt face or cliff of a ridge or hill range’ (Page). Also attrib.
hodden	Woollen cloth of a coarse quality such as used to be made by country weavers on their hand-looms.
door-rabbet	A piece of stone (or occasionally timber) cut and shaped so as to form one side of an opening in a wall and accommodate a door, gate, window, or chimney;
fugle	To cheat, trick.
glen	A mountain-valley, usually narrow and forming the course of a stream.
shackly	Shaky, rickety; ramshackle.
hobbledehoy	A youth at the age between boyhood and manhood, a stripling; esp. a clumsy or awkward youth.
wynd	A narrow street or passage turning off from a main thoroughfare; a narrow cross-street; a lane or alley.
gillies	An attendant on a Highland chief. Now hist.
forehanded	That has made provision for the future; in easy circumstances, ‘well-to-do’. Now only U.S.
puncheon	A tool or machine for stamping a design on an object or A short upright piece of timber in a wooden framing to provide stiffening or support; a supporting post, spec. a post supporting the roof in a coal mine. or A split log or rough piece of timber with one smoothed surface, used esp. for flooring and corduroy roads, and formerly for buildings;
cheval-de-frise	A defensive appliance of war, employed chiefly to check cavalry charges, and stop breaches; a large piece of Timber pierc'd, and travers'd with wooden Spikes, arm'd or pointed with Iron, five or six Foot long.

Talking about single women

Most societies fear, hate and suspect young women. Therefore, talking about young, unmarried women is linguistically problematic. This is true in several languages.

• It's especially clear  in French: garce, originally the feminine of garcon, came to mean 'slut', while garcon continued to mean simply 'boy'. After garce became contaminated, fille, the feminine of fils, came to be used. But soon fille fell victim to the same contamination. Finally jeune fille was expanded from its original meaning of 'young girl' and came to be applied to young woman, similar to the English 'girl'. Jeune personne (young person) is another euphemism used in the past to avoid facing the uncomfortable fact of a young woman.
• In English, the word 'woman' came to be used only to refer to lower-class women; the words 'lady', 'young lady' and 'girl' replaced it,and in the early 20th century English even borrowed the French 'young person' to mean an unmarried woman.
• In modern English,'lady' or 'young lady' is less often used, but the discomfort with the word 'woman' persists. A new development is the use of the word 'female', which is military and bureaucratic jargon as well as giving a helpful air of pseudo-scientificity to one's speech. When you are making unsupported allegations about the difference between men and women, it's a lot easier to call them 'males' and 'females'. It makes you sounds objective, like a farmer talking about his livestock. On the other hand, using the term 'woman/women' is so unusual it actually tends to make you sound like a feminist.
• In a Language Log post which is more comprehensive than I will do justice to, the same phenomenon is shown to appear in Chinese.
  

  
  When I started to learn Mandarin nearly half a century ago, it used to be that xiǎojiě 小姐 ("miss") was a polite way to refer to or address a young, unmarried woman. You could also extend xiǎojiě 小姐 ("miss", lit., "little elder sister") to convey other, related meanings, such as lǎo xiǎojiě 老小姐 ("old maid / miss"), xiǎojiě píqì 小姐脾气 ("petulant; flirtatious; coquettish"), and so forth. Gradually, however, xiǎojiě 小姐 ("miss") evolved to the point that it often came to be used in a jocular or facetious manner.  Furthermore, when used by itself, xiǎojiě 小姐 may be applied to prostitutes, so one must be careful when referring to someone with this word.  It seems that there is no longer a broadly accepted, relatively respectful term of address for a young, single woman.

Translation and class

“Translators tend to write in a normalized language and are more attentive to what is broadly understood to be the correct or standard form. Translation tends toward the center, to whatever linguistic regularities are conceptualized as belonging to the standard language, irrespective of what native speakers typically say.

No consecutive interpreter would think of adopting lower-class diction to reproduce for the benefit of a visiting foreign dignitary the kind of language spoken to him by a factory hand or collective farm worker. In written prose, too, translators shy away from giving the uncouth truly uncouth forms of language in the target text...Translation always takes the register of naturally written prose up a notch or two.
There is a seemingly inevitable bias against representing forms of language recognized in the source culture as regional, uncouth, ill-educated or taboo by socially matching forms in the target tongue---presumably because doing so risks identifying the translator as a member of just such a marginal or subordinated class. The social dimension of style doesn’t flow easily from tongue to tongue.”

One reason why translations are often less exciting and interesting than original texts. Let's all just learn all the languages instead.

Muddled modern ideas of virtue

Jared Diamond, one of the most perfect exemplifications of modern liberal thinking, is writing about Montana's environmental problems:

I initially wondered whether Montana's environmental problems and polarizing disputes might involve selfish behavior on the part of individuals who advanced their own interests in full knowledge that they were simultaneously damaging the rest of Montana society. That may be true in some cases...[but] whenever I have actually been able to talk with Montanans, I have found their actions to be consistent with their values, even if those values clash with my own or those of other Montanans. That is, for the most part Montana's difficulties cannot be simplistically attributed to selfish[,] evil people knowingly and reprehensibly profiting at the expense of neighbors. Instead, they involve clashes between people whose own particular backgrounds and values cause them to favor policies differing from those favored by people with different backgrounds and values.

But what do you mean by the word 'evil', Mr. Diamond, if not acting according to values which clash with yours? And what do you mean by 'selfishness', if not a person's acting in accordance with his own values regardless of what others value?

This over-tolerant and muddled thinking would seem to deny the possibility of any true evil or selfishness. And there seems to be some vague idea here that not being a hypocrite, in other words, acting in accordance with one's values, equals virtue. Or even that having values at all guarantees that a person is not evil.

The standard is not that low--everyone has values, and I would even say everyone acts in accordance with them (those who seem hypocritical are acting in accordance with what they really value, rather than what they claim to value.) But very few are virtuous or even well-intentioned.

Also, has anyone else noticed how very badly edited all this guy's books are?

The articles of religion are some of them practical and some speculative. Now, though both sorts consist in the knowledge of truth, yet these terminate simply in the understanding, those influence the will and manners.

Did that confuse you? Of course it did, because in English, we no longer distinguish between 'these' and 'those' in terms of literary priority, but rather only in terms of physical proximity (or in some unsubtle abstract terms--those opinions are his, these opinions are mine, although I'm trying to sound objective.) In French, they still use 'ceux-ci' and 'ceux-là' as Locke does above. French is very useful for understanding any older English.

How odd to think that in Burke's time, 'professional' meant 'lower class' (as in a person who has a profession rather than living off his land), and, now, it means 'upper class' (a person who has a white-collar job, rather than working in retail or in a factory or being unemployed.) (You can see this latter use in Craigslist postings for roommates. Everyone describes himself as 'professional', since he is afraid of saying 'rich', 'educated' or 'white'.)

A note on the increasing democratization of society, and on the importance of a job to Americans.

In other news, I learned that I am technically a member of the middle quintile--the middle middle class. Better than I thought, but still unsatisfying. The paychecks come too slowly, and I still don't know how to dress.

Landscape of Thorns

Check out this article on communicating the dangers of nuclear waste to humans 10,000 years in the future: my favorite is the "Landscape of Thorns." However, as the article basically concludes, if human beings in the future aren't smart enough to figure out that being around radioactivity is unhealthy, we probably can't help them, and they probably deserve to die out.

Vulgar locutions on the rise

Here's one I came across recently:

*The bird couldn't reach its beak through the cage.

where the proper English would be:

The bird couldn't reach through the cage with its beak.

or

The bird's beak couldn't reach through the cage.

Another example is:

*Can you reach me that book?

Instead of:

Can you reach that book, and can you hand it to me?

I think the improper usage is becoming more common, and I can see why: the meaning is clear, the sentence structure more direct, and there's no conspicuous vulgarity (I doubt most people would recognize the impropriety at all.) Also, note the confusion with 'stretch', which, unlike 'reach' can be used transitively.

One that is equally logical is the use of 'itch' as a verb:

*I itched her itch.

For the vulgar, it's easier to remember one word than two, and 'scratch' already has separate meanings as a noun and a verb:

The cat had scratched me, so I had a scratch on my hand.

So, predictable, but annoying. Since there is no gain in logic or directness, this locution just seems like a way for the uneducated to decrease their vocabularies even more.

What do these words have in common?

address, inquiry, mustache, advertising, cigarette, locate, addict, rebound, mama, princess, abdomen, finance, recess, defect, research
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All words that, in British English, were once accented on the second or third syllable, but, thanks to our glorious American influence, are now accented on the first! (Or were made into nouns [addict, research] and then accented on the first!)

From a linguistic perspective, I love this sentence from Mad Men:

"Probably wadn't going to happen for her tonight."

The implied 'it' is 'getting laid'. Who says English can't have sentences without subjects?

It clearly happens more often with emotionally charged subjects like sex.

The most interesting idioms are the offensive ones

The English really used to hate the Dutch. We’ve all heard of Dutch treat and Dutch courage, but what about other expressions of hateful chauvinism, such as:

Dutch widow (a prostitute)
Dutch bargain (a drunken agreement)
Dutch feast (one at which the host gets drunk before his guests)
Dutch uncle (a brutal adviser)
Dutch reckoning (a non-itemized bill)

I guess the common thread is that something that is 'Dutch' is not what it purports to be, or not how it should be (like an 'Indian giver'). Fascinating!